Great Mosque of Damascus Plan Drawing

Mosque in Damascus, Syria; fourth-holiest site in Islam

Umayyad Mosque
الْجَامِع الْأُمَوِي‎
Organized religion
Affiliation	Islam
Condition	Intact
Location
Location	Damascus, Damascus Governorate
Country	Syrian arab republic
Courtyard of the Umayyad Mosque in Old Damascus Show map of Damascus Location within Syria Show map of Syria
Geographic coordinates	33°30′43″Due north 36°18′24″E  /  33.511944°North 36.306667°East  / 33.511944; 36.306667 Coordinates: 33°xxx′43″N 36°18′24″East  /  33.511944°Northward 36.306667°E  / 33.511944; 36.306667
Architecture
Type	Islamic
Style	Umayyad
Completed	715 CE
Specifications
Minaret(s)	3
Minaret height	77 metres (253 ft)
Materials	Stone, marble, tile, mosaic

The Umayyad Mosque (Arabic: الجامع الأموي, romanized: al-Jāmiʿ al-Umawī ), also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus, located in the onetime city of Damascus, is i of the largest and oldest mosques in the world. Its religious importance stems from the eschatological reports concerning the mosque, and historic events associated with information technology. Christian and Muslim tradition alike consider it the burial place of John the Baptist'southward head, a tradition originating in the sixth century. Muslim tradition holds that the mosque volition exist the identify Jesus will return before the End of Days. Two shrines inside the premises commemorate the Islamic prophet Muhammad's grandson Husayn ibn Ali.

The site has been used as a house of worship since the Fe Age, when the Arameans built on it a temple dedicated to their god of rain, Hadad. Under Roman dominion, outset in 64 CE, it was converted into the center of the royal cult of Jupiter, the Roman god of rain, condign one of the largest temples in Syria. When the empire in Syrian arab republic transitioned to Christian Byzantine rule, Emperor Theodosius I ( r. 379–395) transformed information technology into a cathedral and the seat of the 2nd-highest ranking bishop in the Patriarchate of Antioch.

After the Muslim conquest of Damascus in 634, part of the cathedral was designated equally a small prayer house (musalla) for the Muslim conquerors. Equally the Muslim community grew, the Umayyad caliph al-Walid I ( r. 705–715) confiscated the rest of the cathedral for Muslim employ, returning to the Christians other backdrop in the city every bit compensation. The structure was largely demolished and a grand congregational mosque complex was congenital in its place. The new construction was congenital over nine years past thousands of laborers and artisans from across the Islamic and Byzantine empires at considerable expense and was funded by the war haul of Umayyad conquests and taxes on the Arab troops of Damascus. Unlike the simpler mosques of the time, the Umayyad Mosque had a large basilical plan with 3 parallel aisles and a perpendicular fundamental nave leading from the mosque's archway to the earth'south second concave mihrab (prayer niche). The mosque was noted for its rich compositions of marble paneling and its extensive gold mosaics of vegetal motifs, covering some 4,000 square metres (43,000 sq ft), likely the largest in the globe.

Under Abbasid rule (750–860), new structures were added, including the Dome of the Treasury and the Minaret of the Bride, while the Mamluks (1260–1516) undertook major restoration efforts and added the Minaret of Qaytbay. The Umayyad Mosque innovated and influenced nascent Islamic architecture, with other major mosque complexes, including the Slap-up Mosque of Cordoba in Kingdom of spain and the al-Azhar Mosque of Egypt, based on its model. Although the original structure has been contradistinct several times due to fire, war harm and repairs, it is 1 of the few mosques to maintain the same form and architectural features of its 8th-century construction, as well every bit its Umayyad character.

History [edit]

Pre-Islamic menstruation [edit]

The site of the Umayyad Mosque is attested for as a identify of worship since the Iron Age. Damascus was the capital letter of the Aramaean state Aram-Damascus and a large temple was dedicated to Hadad-Ramman, the god of thunderstorms and rain, and was erected at the site of the nowadays-twenty-four hour period mosque. One stone remains from the Aramaean temple, dated to the dominion of King Hazael, and is currently on brandish in the National Museum of Damascus.^[1]

The Temple of Hadad-Ramman continued to serve a central role in the urban center, and when the Roman Empire conquered Damascus in 64 BCE, they assimilated Hadad with their own god of thunder, Jupiter.^[ii] Thus, they engaged in a projection to reconfigure and aggrandize the temple under the direction of Damascus-built-in builder Apollodorus, who created and executed the new design.^[3]

The new Temple of Jupiter became the center of the regal cult of Jupiter and was served as a response to the Second Temple in Jerusalem.^[four] The Temple of Jupiter would accomplish further additions during the early Roman menstruation, mostly initiated by high priests who nerveless contributions from the wealthy citizens of Damascus.^[v] The eastern gateway of the courtyard was expanded during the reign of Septimius Severus ( r. 193–211).^[vi] By the 4th century, the temple was especially renowned for its size and beauty. It was separated from the city past 2 sets of walls. The first, wider wall spanned a wide expanse that included a market, and the second wall surrounded the bodily sanctuary of Jupiter. Information technology was the largest temple in Roman Syria.^[vii]

In 391, the Temple of Jupiter was converted into a cathedral by the Christian emperor Theodosius I ( r. 379–395).^[viii] It served as the seat of the Bishop of Damascus, who ranked 2d within the Patriarchate of Antioch after the patriarch himself.^[9]

Umayyad construction [edit]

Foundation and structure [edit]

Remains of an old Roman-era triple doorway in the outside southern wall of the mosque^[10]

Damascus was captured past Muslim Arab forces led past Khalid ibn al-Walid in 634. In 661, the Islamic Caliphate came nether the rule of the Umayyad dynasty, which chose Damascus to be the administrative capital of the Muslim world.^[11] The Byzantine cathedral had remained in use by the local Christians, only a prayer room (musalla) for Muslims was constructed on the southeastern office of the building.^{[12] [xiii]} The musalla did not take the chapters to house the speedily growing number of Muslim worshippers in Damascus. The city otherwise lacked sufficient free space for a big congregational mosque.^[xiv] The sixth Umayyad caliph, al-Walid I (r. 705–715), resolved to construct such a mosque on the site of the cathedral in 706.^[11]

Al-Walid personally supervised the projection and had most of the cathedral, including the musalla, demolished. The construction of the mosque completely altered the layout of the edifice, though it preserved the outer walls of the temenos (sanctuary or inner enclosure) of the Roman-era temple.^{[12] [13]} While the church (and the temples before it) had the main building located at the middle of the rectangular enclosure, the mosque's prayer hall is placed confronting its southward wall. The architect recycled the columns and arcades of the church building, dismantling and repositioning them in the new structure. Professor Alain George has re-examined the compages and design of this first mosque on the site via three previously untranslated poems and the descriptions of medieval scholars.^[xv] Too its use as a large congregational mosque for the Damascenes, the new house of worship was meant as a tribute to the urban center.^{[16] [17] [xviii]}

In response to Christian protest at the move, al-Walid ordered all the other confiscated churches in the metropolis to be returned to the Christians every bit compensation. The mosque was completed in 711,^{[19] [20]} or in 715, shortly after al-Walid'due south expiry, by his successor, Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik ( r. 715–717).^{[16] [17] [18]} According to tenth-century Persian historian Ibn al-Faqih, somewhere between 600,000 and i,000,000 gold dinars were spent on the project.^{[16] [21]} The historian Khalid Yahya Blankinship notes that the field army of Damascus, numbering some 45,000 soldiers, were taxed a quarter of their salaries for 9 years to pay for its construction.^{[19] [twenty]} Coptic craftsmen as well every bit Persian, Indian, Greek, and Moroccan laborers provided the bulk of the labor force which consisted of 12,000 people.^{[16] [21]}

Layout design [edit]

Floor plan of the mosque (today), with the courtyard above and the three-aisled prayer hall below

The plan of the new mosque was innovative and highly influential in the history of early Islamic compages.^{[22] [23]} The primeval mosques before this had been relatively plain hypostyle structures (a flat-roof hall supported by columns), but the new mosque in Damascus introduced a more basilical plan with three parallel aisles and a perpendicular central nave. The fundamental nave, which leads from the main entrance to the mihrab (niche in the qibla wall) and features a central dome, provided a new aesthetic focus which may accept been designed to emphasize the area originally reserved for the caliph during prayers, near the mihrab.^{[22] [23]} In that location is some uncertainty as to whether the dome was originally directly in front of the mihrab (as in many subsequently mosques) or in its electric current position mid-way along the key nave.^[24] Scholars have attributed the blueprint of the mosque'southward plan to the influences of Byzantine Christian basilicas in the region.^{[22] [25]} Rafi Grafman and Myriam Rosen-Ayalon have argued that the first Umayyad al-Aqsa Mosque built in Jerusalem, begun by Abd al-Malik (al-Walid's father) and now replaced past later constructions, had a layout very similar to the current Umayyad Mosque in Damascus and that it probably served every bit a model for the latter.^[26]

The mosque initially had no minaret towers, as this characteristic of mosque architecture was not established until afterward. However, at to the lowest degree two of the corners of the mosque'southward outer wall had brusque towers, platforms, or roof shelters which were used by the muezzin to issue the call to prayer (adhān), constituting a blazon of proto-minaret. These features were referred to every bit a mi'd͟hana ("place of the adhān") or as a ṣawma῾a ("monk's cell", due to their small-scale size) in historical Arabic sources.^{[27] [28]} Arabic sources indicated that they were former Roman towers which already stood at the corners of the temenos before the mosque's construction and were just left intact and reused after construction.^{[27] [29]}

Decoration [edit]

Section of the courtyard's western wall with significant remains of original Umayyad-era mosaics, depicting landscapes and buildings^{[30] [31]}

The mosque was richly decorated. A rich composition of marble paneling covered the lower walls, though only small examples of the original marbles accept survived today near the east gate.^[30] The walls of the prayer hall were raised to a higher place the level of the former temenos walls, which allowed for new windows to be inserted in the upper walls. The windows had ornately carved grilles that foreshadowed the styles of windows in afterward Islamic architecture.^{[30] [32]}

The nigh celebrated decorative element of all was the revetment of mosaics, which originally covered much of the courtyard and the interior hall. The best-preserved remains are still visible in the courtyard today.^[a] By some estimates, the original mosque had the largest expanse of gold mosaics in the globe, covering approximately 4,000 square metres (43,000 sq ft).^[23] Byzantine artisans were employed to create the mosaics, which depict landscapes and buildings in a characteristic belatedly Roman style.^{[35] [36]} They reflected a wide multifariousness of artistic styles used by mosaicists and painters since the 1st century CE, but the combined employ of all these different styles in the same place was innovative at the time.^[37] Like to the Dome of the Rock, built earlier past Abd al-Malik, vegetation and plants were the most common motif, but those of the Damascus mosque are more naturalistic.^[37] In add-on to the large mural depictions, a mosaic frieze with an intricate vine motif (referred to every bit the karma in Standard arabic historical sources) once ran around the walls of the prayer hall, above the level of the mihrab.^[38] The only notable omission is the absence of human and animal figures, which was probable a new brake imposed past the Muslim patron.^[37] Scholars have long debated the meaning of the mosaic imagery. Some historical Muslim writers and some modern scholars have interpreted them as a representation of all the cities in the known globe (or within the Umayyad Caliphate at the time), while other scholars interpret them as a depiction of Paradise.^[37]

The mihrab [edit]

Photograph of the mosque's mihrab (centre) and minbar (right) before the 1893 burn down

The original mihrab was i of the get-go concave mihrabs in the Islamic globe, the 2d one known to exist afterward the ane created in 706–707 during al-Walid's reconstruction of the Prophet's Mosque in Medina.^{[39] [22]} The exact appearance of the mosque'southward original main mihrab is uncertain, due to the multiple repairs and restorations that took place over the centuries. Ibn Jubayr, who visited the mosque in 1184, described the inside of the mihrab every bit filled with miniature blind arcades whose arches resembled "pocket-sized mihrabs", each filled with inlaid mother-of-pearl mosaics and framed by spiral columns of marble.^[40] This mihrab was famed across the Islamic globe for its beauty, as noted by other writers of the era.^[40] Its appearance may have been imitated by other surviving mihrabs built under the Mamluk sultans al-Mansur Qalawun and al-Nasir Muhammad in the 13th and 14th centuries, such as the richly-decorated mihrab of Qalawun'due south mausoleum in Cairo (completed in 1285).^[41] Scholars by and large assume that the mihrab described by Ibn Jubayr dated from a restoration of the mosque in 1082.^[twoscore] Another restoration occurred after 1401 and this version, which survived until another fire in 1893, was over again decorated with miniature arcades, while its semi-dome was filled with coffering similar to Roman compages.^{[40] [42]} Finbarr Barry Flood has suggested that the perpetuation of the mihrab'south arcaded decoration across several restorations indicates that the medieval restorations were aimed at preserving at least some of the original mihrab'southward advent, and therefore the 8th-century Umayyad mihrab may take had these features.^[40]

Abbasid and Fatimid era [edit]

Post-obit the toppling of the Umayyads in 750, the Abbasid dynasty came to ability and moved the majuscule of the Caliphate to Baghdad. Apart from the attention given for strategic and commercial purposes, the Abbasids had no involvement in Damascus. Thus, the Umayyad Mosque reportedly suffered nether their dominion, with little recorded building action betwixt the 8th and 10th centuries.^[43] Withal, the Abbasids did consider the mosque to be a major symbol of Islam'due south triumph, and thus it was spared the systematic eradication of the Umayyad legacy in the urban center.^[44] In 789–90 the Abbasid governor of Damascus, al-Fadl ibn Salih ibn Ali, constructed the Dome of the Treasury with the purpose of housing the mosque'southward funds.^[44] The and then-called Dome of the Clock, standing in the eastern function of the courtyard, may have too been erected originally by the same Abbasid governor in 780.^{[45] [46]} The 9th-century Jerusalemite geographer al-Muqaddasi credited the Abbasids for building the northern minaret (Madhanat al-Arous, pregnant 'Minaret of the Bride') of the mosque in 831 during the reign of Caliph al-Ma'mun ( r. 813–833).^{[43] [44]} This was accompanied by al-Ma'mun's removal and replacement of Umayyad inscriptions in the mosque.^[47]

By the early 10th century, a monumental h2o clock had been installed past the entrance in the western part of the southern wall of the mosque, which was consequently known every bit Bab al-Sa'a ('Gate of the Clock') at the time but is known today every bit Bab al-Ziyada.^[48] This clock seems to take stopped functioning by the middle of the 12th century.^[49] Abbasid rule over Syria began crumbling during the early 10th century, and in the decades that followed, it came nether the control of autonomous realms who were only nominally under Abbasid authority. The Fatimids of Egypt, who adhered to Shia Islam, conquered Damascus in 970, but few recorded improvements of the mosque were undertaken by the new rulers. The Umayyad Mosque'due south prestige allowed the residents of Damascus to institute the urban center as a eye for Sunni intellectualism, enabling them to maintain relative independence from Fatimid religious authority.^[l] In 1069, big sections of the mosque, particularly the northern wall, were destroyed in a fire as a result of an uprising past the urban center's residents confronting the Fatimids' Berber army who were garrisoned there.^[51]

Seljuk and Ayyubid era [edit]

The Sunni Muslim Seljuk Turks gained control of the city in 1078 and restored the nominal rule of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Seljuk ruler Tutush ( r. 1079–1095) initiated the repair of damage caused by the 1069 fire.^[52] In 1082, his vizier, Abu Nasr Ahmad ibn Fadl, had the central dome restored in a more than spectacular course;^[53] the two piers supporting it were reinforced and the original Umayyad mosaics of the northern inner façade were renewed. The northern riwaq ('portico') was rebuilt in 1089.^[54] The Seljuk atabeg of Damascus, Toghtekin ( r. 1104–1128), repaired the northern wall in 1110 and two inscribed panels located above its doorways were dedicated to him.^[55] In 1113, the Seljuk atabeg of Mosul, Sharaf al-Din Mawdud ( r. 1109–1113), was assassinated in the Umayyad Mosque.^[56] As the conflict between Damascus and the Crusaders intensified in the mid-12th century, the mosque was used as a chief rallying point calling on Muslims to defend the urban center and return Jerusalem to Muslim easily. Prominent imams, including Ibn Asakir, preached a spiritual jihad ('struggle') and when the Crusaders avant-garde towards Damascus in 1148, the city'south residents heeded their calls; the Crusader regular army withdrew as a upshot of their resistance.^[57]

In Damascus there is a mosque that has no equal in the world, not one with such fine proportion, nor one then solidly constructed, nor one vaulted and so securely, nor one more marvelously laid out, nor 1 then admirably decorated in aureate mosaics and diverse designs, with enameled tiles and polished marbles.

—Muhammad al-Idrisi, 1154^[58]

During the reign of the Zengid ruler Nur ad-Din Zangi, which began in 1154, a 2nd monumental clock, the Jayrun Water Clock, was built on his personal orders.^[59] It was constructed outside the eastern entrance to the mosque, called Bab Jayrun, past the builder Muhammad al-Sa'ati, was rebuilt past al-Sa'ati post-obit a burn down in 1167, and was eventually repaired by his son, Ridwan, in the early 13th century. It may take survived into the 14th century.^[threescore] The Arab geographer al-Idrisi visited the mosque in 1154.^[44]

Damascus witnessed the institution of several religious institutions under the Ayyubids, but the Umayyad Mosque retained its place as the center of religious life in the metropolis. Muslim traveler Ibn Jubayr described the mosque as containing many unlike zawaya (religious lodges) for religious and Quranic studies. In 1173, the northern wall of the mosque was damaged over again by the fire and was rebuilt past the Ayyubid sultan, Saladin (r. 1174–1193), forth with the Minaret of the Bride,^[61] which had been destroyed in the 1069 fire.^[44] During the internal feuds between afterwards Ayyubid princes, the metropolis was dealt a slap-up deal of harm, and the mosque's eastern minaret—known as the 'Minaret of Jesus'—was destroyed at the easily of as-Salih Ayyub of Egypt while besieging as-Salih Ismail of Damascus in 1245.^[62] The minaret was afterward rebuilt with fiddling ornamentation.^[63] Saladin, along with many of his successors, were buried around the Umayyad Mosque (see Mausoleum of Saladin).^[64]

Mamluk era [edit]

Umayyad Mosque as depicted in the Book of Wonders, a belatedly 14th century Standard arabic manuscript

The Mongols, nether the leadership of the Nestorian Christian Kitbuqa, with the aid of some submitted Western Christian forces, captured Damascus from the Ayyubids in 1260 while Kitbuqa'south superior Hulagu Khan had returned to the Mongol Empire for other business. Bohemond VI of Antioch, one of the Western Christian generals in the invasion, ordered Catholic Mass to exist performed in the Umayyad Mosque.^[65] Nevertheless, the Muslim Mamluks of Egypt, led by Sultan Qutuz and Baibars, wrested control of the metropolis from the Mongols later in the same twelvemonth, killing Kitbuqa in the Battle of Ain Jalut, and the purpose of the Mosque was returned from Christian to its original Islamic function. In 1270, Baibars, by now sultan, ordered extensive restorations to the mosque, peculiarly its marble, mosaics and gildings. According to Baibars' biographer, Ibn Shaddad, the restorations price the sultan xx,000 dinars. Among the largest mosaic fragments restored was a 34.5 by 7.3 metres (113 past 24 ft) segment in the western portico called the "Barada panel".^[66] The mosaics that decorated the mosque were a specific target of the restoration projection and they had a major influence on Mamluk architecture in Syria and Egypt.^[67]

In 1285, the Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyyah started teaching Qur'an exegesis in the mosque. When the Ilkhanid Mongols under Ghazan invaded the city in 1300, Ibn Taymiyya preached jihad, urging the citizens of Damascus to resist their occupation. The Mamluks under Sultan Qalawun drove out the Mongols afterward that year.^[68] When Qalawun's forces entered the metropolis, the Mongols attempted to station several catapults in the Umayyad Mosque because the Mamluks had started fires around the citadel to prevent Mongol access to it. The attempt failed equally the Mamluks proceeded to burn the catapults before they were placed in the mosque.^[69]

The Mamluk viceroy of Syria, Tankiz, carried out restoration work in the mosque in 1326–1328. He reassembled the mosaics on the qibla wall and replaced all the marble tiles in the prayer hall. Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad also undertook major restoration work for the mosque in 1328. He demolished and completely rebuilt the unstable qibla wall and moved the Bab al-Ziyadah gate to the east.^[66] Much of that work was damaged during a fire that burned the mosque in 1339.^[67] Islamic art adept, Finbarr Barry Flood, describes the Bahri Mamluks' attitude towards the mosque as an "obsessive interest" and their efforts at maintaining, repairing, and restoring the mosque were unparalleled in any other period of Muslim rule.^[70] The Arab astronomer Ibn al-Shatir worked as the chief muwaqqit ('religious timekeeper') and the chief muezzin at the Umayyad Mosque from 1332 until he died in 1376.^[71] He erected a big sundial on the mosque's northern minaret in 1371, now lost. A replica was installed in its place in the modern period.^{[72] [73]} The Minaret of Jesus was burnt down in a burn in 1392.^[74]

The Mongol conqueror Timur besieged Damascus in 1400. He ordered the burning of the city on 17 March 1401, and the fire ravaged the Umayyad Mosque. The eastern minaret was reduced to rubble, and the cardinal dome complanate.^[75] A southwestern minaret was added to the mosque in 1488 during the reign of Mamluk sultan Qaitbay.^[76]

Ottoman era [edit]

1862 photo of the main prayer hall facade, from the courtyard looking south-east, with the Minaret of Isa in the background

Damascus was conquered from the Mamluks by the Ottoman Empire under Sultan Selim I in 1516. The first Friday prayer performed in Selim's name in the Umayyad Mosque was attended by the sultan himself.^{[77] [78]} The Ottomans used an endowment system (waqf) for religious sites as a means to link the local population with the cardinal authority. The waqf of the Umayyad Mosque was the largest in the urban center, employing 596 people. Supervisory and clerical positions were reserved for Ottoman officials while religious offices were held by and large past members of the local ulema.^[79] Although the awqaf (plural of "waqf") were taxed, the waqf of the Umayyad Mosque was excluded.^[80] In 1518, the Ottoman governor of Damascus and supervisor of the mosque's waqf, Janbirdi al-Ghazali, had the mosque repaired and redecorated equally function of his architectural reconstruction program for the city.^[81]

The prominent Sufi scholar Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi taught regularly at the Umayyad Mosque starting in 1661.^[82]

The khatib (preacher) of the Umayyad Mosque was 1 of the three most influential religious officials in Ottoman Damascus, the other two being the Hanafi mufti and the naqib al-ashraf. He served as a link between the imperial government in Constantinople and the elites of Damascus and was a key shaper of public opinion in the city. By 1650 members of the mercantile and scholarly Mahasini family held the position, retaining it for much of the 18th and early and mid-19th centuries, partly due to their links with the Shaykh al-Islam in the regal uppercase. In the belatedly 19th century, another Damascene family with connections in Constantinople, the Khatibs, vied for the position. After the decease of the Mahasini preacher in 1869, a member of the Khatibs succeeded him.^[83]

The mosque's prayer hall was again ravaged and partly destroyed past fire in 1893.^{[84] [85]} A laborer engaging in repair piece of work accidentally started the burn when he was smoking his nargila (water pipe).^[85] The burn down destroyed the inner fabric of the prayer hall and caused the collapse of the mosque'due south central dome. The Ottomans fully restored the mosque, largely maintaining the original layout.^[86] The restoration process, which lasted nine years, did not endeavor to reproduce the original ornament.^[85] The central mihrab was replaced and the dome was rebuilt in a contemporary Ottoman style. The rubble and damaged elements from the fire, including some of the original pillars and mosaic remains, were but disposed of.^{[85] [38] [23]}

The mosque after the 1893 fire (photograph from 1898)

Until 1899 the mosque's library included the "very former" Qubbat al-Khazna drove;^[87] "most of its holdings were given to the German emperor Wilhelm II and only a few pieces kept for the National Athenaeum in Damascus."^[88]

It is the burial place of the kickoff three officers of the Ottoman Aviation Squadrons who died on mission, in this case the Istanbul-Cairo expedition in 1914. They were Navy Lieutenant Fethi Bey and his navigator, Artillery First Lieutenant Sadık Bey and Arms 2nd Lieutenant Nuri Bey.

Modern era [edit]

The Umayyad Mosque underwent major restorations in 1929 during the French Mandate over Syrian arab republic and in 1954 and 1963 under the Syrian Republic.^[89]

In the 1980s and in the early on 1990s, Syrian president Hafez al-Assad ordered a wide-scale renovation of the mosque.^[ninety] The methods and concepts of Assad's restoration project were heavily criticized past UNESCO,^{[ clarification needed ]} merely the general approach in Syria was that the mosque was more of a symbolic monument rather than a historical one and thus, its renovation could merely enhance the mosque'south symbolism.^[91]

Umayyad Mosque at night, present day

In 1990s, Mohammed Burhanuddin constructed a zarih of the martyrs of the Battle of Karbala,^[92] whose heads were brought to the Mosque after their defeat at the hands of the then Umayyad caliph, Yazid I.

In 2001, Pope John Paul II visited the mosque, primarily to visit the relics of John the Baptist. Information technology was the beginning time a pope paid a visit to a mosque.^[93]

On March xv, 2011, the first meaning protests related to the Syrian civil war began at the Umayyad Mosque when 40–fifty worshipers gathered outside the complex and chanted pro-democracy slogans. Syrian security forces swiftly quelled the protests and accept since cordoned off the surface area during Fri prayers to prevent large-calibration demonstrations.^{[94] [95]}

Architecture [edit]

The ground plan of the Umayyad Mosque is rectangular in shape and measures 97 meters (318 ft) by 156 meters (512 ft).^[96] A large courtyard occupies the northern role of the mosque circuitous, while the prayer hall or haram ('sanctuary') covers the southern part. The mosque is enclosed by four exterior walls which were role of the temenos of the original Roman temple.^[97]

Sanctuary [edit]

Three arcades make up the interior space of the sanctuary. They are parallel to the direction of prayer which is towards Mecca. The arcades are supported by two rows of stone Corinthian columns. Each of the arcades comprise two levels. The first level consists of big semi-circular arches, while the 2d level is fabricated up of double arches. This blueprint is the same repeated by the arcades of the courtyard. The three interior arcades intersect in the heart of the sanctuary with a larger, higher arcade that is perpendicular to the qibla wall and faces the mihrab and the minbar.^[96] The central transept divides the arcades into ii halves each with eleven arches. The entire sanctuary measures 136 meters (446 ft) by 37 meters (121 ft) and takes up the southern one-half of the mosque complex.^[98]

4 mihrabs line the sanctuary'south rear wall, the principal one being the Great Mihrab which is located roughly at the center of the wall. The Mihrab of the Sahaba, named after the sahaba ('companions of Muhammad') is situated in the eastern half. According to the 9th-century Muslim engineer Musa ibn Shakir, the latter mihrab was built during the mosque's initial construction and it became the third niche-formed mihrab in Islam'southward history.^[98]

The fundamental dome of the mosque is known as the 'Dome of the Eagle' (Qubbat an-Nisr) and located atop the center of the prayer hall.^[99] The original wooden dome was replaced by one built of stone following the 1893 burn down. Information technology receives its name because it is idea to resemble an eagle, with the dome itself existence the eagle'due south caput while the eastern and western flanks of the prayer hall correspond the wings.^[100] With a top of 36 meters (118 ft), the dome rests on an octagonal substructure with ii arched windows on each of its sides. Information technology is supported past the cardinal interior arcade and has openings forth its parameter.^[96]

Panoramic view of the prayer hall, with the mihrab in the centre (looking due south) and the Shrine of John the Baptist visible to the left

Courtyard [edit]

In the courtyard (sahn), the level of the stone pavement had get uneven over fourth dimension due to several repairs throughout the mosque's history. Recent work on the courtyard has restored it to its consistent Umayyad-era levels.^[96] Arcades (riwaq) surroundings the courtyard supported past alternating stone columns and piers. In that location is i pier in between every two columns. Considering the northern part of the courtyard had been destroyed in an earthquake in 1759, the arcade is non consequent; when the northern wall was rebuilt the columns that were supporting it were not.^[96] The courtyard and its arcades contain the largest preserved remnants of the mosque'due south Umayyad-era mosaic decoration.^[33]

Several domed pavilions stand in the courtyard. The Dome of the Treasury is an octagonal construction decorated with mosaics, standing on eight Roman columns in the western part of the courtyard. Its 8th-century mosaics were largely remade in the late 20th-century restoration.^{[101] [102]} In a mirror position on the other side of the courtyard is the Dome of the Clock, another octagonal domed pavilion.^[45] Near the middle of the courtyard, sheltering an ablutions fountain at footing level, is a rectangular pavilion which is a modern reconstruction of a tardily Ottoman pavilion.^[103]

Courtyard of the Umayyad Mosque, view from east (left) towards w (right). Notable structures: Dome of the Clock (far left),^[104] and the Minaret of Isa (Jesus).^[105]

Minaret of the Bride, the start minaret congenital for the mosque

Minarets [edit]

Within the Umayyad Mosque complex are iii minarets. The Minaret of Isa on the southeast corner, the Minaret of Qaytbay (also called Madhanat al-Gharbiyya) on the southwest corner, and the Minaret of the Helpmate located forth the northern wall.

Minaret of the Bride [edit]

The Minaret of the Helpmate was the first one built and is located on the mosque's northern wall. The exact year of the minaret's original construction is unknown.^[44] The bottom role of the minaret most likely dates dorsum to the Abbasid era in the ninth century.^{[44] [106]} While information technology is possible that the Umayyads built it, in that location is no indication that a minaret on the northern wall was a function of al-Walid I'south initial concept. Al-Muqaddasi visited the minaret in 985 when Damascus was under Abbasid command and described it as "recently built". The upper segment was constructed in 1174.^[44] This minaret is used by the muezzin for the call to prayer (adhan) and at that place is a spiral staircase of 160 stone steps that lead to the muezzin's calling position.^[107]

Minaret of Isa, the mosque'south tallest minaret

The Minaret of the Bride is divided into two sections; the main belfry and the spire which are separated by a lead roof. The oldest part of the minaret, or the main tower, is foursquare in shape, has four galleries,^[107] and consists of two unlike forms of masonry; the base of operations consists of big blocks, while the upper section is built of dressed stone. There are 2 light openings near the top of the principal belfry, before the roof, with horseshoe arches and cubical capitals enclosed in a unmarried arch. A smaller arched corbel is located beneath these openings.^[108] Co-ordinate to local legend, the minaret is named subsequently the girl of the merchant who provided the lead for the minaret'south roof who was married to Syria'southward ruler at the time. Attached to the Minaret of the Bride is the 18th-century replica of the 14th-century sundial built by Ibn al-Shatir.^[106]

Minaret of Isa [edit]

The Minaret of Isa is around 77 meters (253 ft) in height and the tallest of the three minarets.^{[109] [110]} Some sources claim it was originally built past the Abbasids in the 9th century.^[106] The primary trunk of the electric current minaret was built by the Ayyubids in 1247, simply the upper section was synthetic past the Ottomans.^[110] The main body of the minaret is foursquare-shaped and the spire is octagonal. It tapers to a bespeak and is surmounted past a crescent (as are the other two minarets.) Two covered galleries are situated in the master trunk and two open up galleries are located on the spire.^[107] Islamic belief holds that Isa (Jesus) volition descend from heaven during the time of the Fajr prayer and volition pray behind the Mahdi. He will then face the Antichrist. According to local Damascene tradition, relating from hadith,^[105] Isa will reach earth via the Minaret of Isa, hence its name.^[110] Ibn Kathir, a prominent 14th-century Muslim scholar, backed this notion.^[111]

Minaret of Qaitbay, constructed in 1488 on the orders of Sultan Qaitbay

Minaret of Qaytbay [edit]

The Minaret of Qaytbay, or the Western Minaret, was built by Qaytbay in 1488.^[106] He as well deputed it'south renovation due to the 1479 fire. The minaret displays strong Islamic-era Egyptian architectural influence typical of the Mamluk period.^[110] It is octagonal in shape and built in receding sections with three galleries.^[107] It is generally believed that both the Minaret of Jesus and the Western Minaret were built on the foundation of ancient Roman towers. ^[110]

Influence on mosque compages [edit]

The Umayyad Mosque is one of the few early mosques in the earth to have maintained the same general structure and architectural features since its initial structure in the early on eighth century. Its Umayyad grapheme has not been significantly contradistinct. Since its institution, the mosque has served every bit a model for congregational mosque compages in Syria too as globally. According to Overflowing, "the construction of the Damascus mosque not only irrevocably contradistinct the urban landscape of the metropolis, inscribing upon it a permanent affirmation of Muslim hegemony, but by giving the Syrian congregational mosque its definitive form it also transformed the subsequent history of the mosque in full general."^[112] Examples of the Umayyad Mosque's ground plan existence used as a epitome for other mosques in the region include the al-Azhar Mosque and Baybars Mosque in Cairo, the Great Mosque of Cordoba in Kingdom of spain, and the Bursa Grand Mosque and the Selimiye Mosque in Turkey.^[113]

Religious significance [edit]

Shrine purportedly housing the caput of Prophet Yahya (John the Baptist).

Left: The location where Husayn's head was kept for brandish. Correct: Zareeh-e-Ras al-Husayn, where Husayn's head was cached.

The mosque is the quaternary holiest site of Islam.^{[114] [115] [116]} A Christian tradition dating to the sixth century developed an association between the one-time cathedral structure and John the Baptist. Legend had it that his head was cached in that location.^[8] Ibn al-Faqih relays that during the construction of the mosque, workers institute a cave-chapel which had a box containing the caput of John the Baptist, known as Yahya ibn Zakariya past Muslims. Upon learning of that and examining it, al-Walid I ordered the head buried under a specific colonnade in the mosque that was later on inlaid with marble.^[117]

It holds great significance to Shia and Sunni Muslims, as this was the destination of the ladies and children of the family unit of Muhammad, fabricated to walk here from Iraq, following the Boxing of Karbala.^[118] Furthermore, information technology was the identify where they were imprisoned for 60 days.^[119] 2 shrines commemorating the Islamic prophet Muhammad'due south grandson Husayn ibn Ali, whose martyrdom is frequently compared to that of John the Baptist,^[120] and Jesus,^[121] be within the building premises.^[122]

The following are structures found within the Mosque that bear great importance:

West Side:

• The entrance gate (known as "Bāb as-Sā'at") — The door marks the location where the prisoners of Karbalā were made to stand for 72 hours before being brought within.^[123] During this time, Yazīd I had the boondocks and his palace busy for their arrival.,^[123]

Southward Wing (primary hall):

• Shrine of John the Baptist (Standard arabic: Yahyā) — According to Al-Suyuti, Ibrahim stated that since the creation of the globe^[124] the Heavens and the Earth wept only for 2 people: Yahya and Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad^[125]
• A white pulpit — Marks the place where Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin addressed the court of Yazīd after existence brought from Karbalā^[126]
• Raised floor (in front end of the pulpit) — Marks the location where all the ladies and children (the household of Muhammad) were made to stand in the presence of Yazīd
• Wooden balcony (direct opposite the raised floor) – Marks the location where Yazīd sat in the court.

Eastward Wing:

• A prayer carpeting and Mihrāb encased in a glass cubicle — Marks the place where Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin used to pray while imprisoned in the castle subsequently the Battle of Karbala
• A metallic, cuboidal indentation in the wall — Marks the place where the head of Husayn ibn Ali was kept for display by Yazīd
• A Zarih — Marks the place where all the other heads of those who cruel in Karbalā were kept within the Mosque.

See also [edit]

• Ablaq
• Slap-up Mosque of Aleppo
• Holiest sites in Islam
• Islamic art
• List of the oldest mosques in the world
• Mezquita de Córdoba
• Religious significance of the Syrian region
• Timeline of Islamic history
• History of medieval Standard arabic and Western European domes

Notes [edit]

1. ^ The best-preserved sections of the mosaics today are located on the inner and outer facades of the western portico (arches) of the courtyard, every bit well every bit in the vestibule of the western entrance. Restitutions carried out to other sections after 1963 accept been heavily criticized for their inauthenticity. Areas of original mosaic work more often than not appear darker today than areas of new (restored) mosaics. A large stretch of mosaics forth the inner wall of the western portico, sometimes known as the "Barada panel", contains original Umayyad fragments, late 13th-century fragments from the time of the Mamluk sultan Baybars, and post-1963 restorations. The outer façade of the prayer hall's main entrance contains only express fragments of original mosaic (in darker shades), with the rest restored after 1963. Some damaged remains of mosaics on the interior façade of this archway, inside the prayer hall, date from a belatedly 11th-century Seljuk-era restoration.^{[33] [34]}

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96. ^ ^{a b c d e} "Jami' al-Umawi al-Kabir (Damascus)". ArchNet . Retrieved 2021-xi-27 . {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-condition (link)
97. ^ Burns 2007, p. 112–114.
98. ^ ^{a b} Grafman & Rosen-Ayalon 1999, p. 8.
99. ^ "Dome of the Eagle (Qubbat ul-Nisr)". Madain Project. Archived from the original on 26 April 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2020.
100. ^ Darke 2010, p. 94.
101. ^ Burns 2007, pp. 132, 286 (note 9).
102. ^ Enderlein 2011, p. 69.
103. ^ Burns 2007, p. 286 (annotation 10).
104. ^ "Domes of the Umayyad Mosque". Madain Projection. Archived from the original on 26 April 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2020.
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External links [edit]

• Christian Sahner, "A Glistening Crossroads," The Wall Street Journal, 17 July 2010
• For freely downloadable, high-resolution photographs of the Umayyad Mosque (for didactics, research, cultural heritage work, and publication) by archaeologists, visit Manar al-Athar
• http://islamicart.museumwnf.org/database_item.php?id=monument;isl;sy;mon01;eleven;en

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque

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